The River Thames, a vital waterway in the UK, has been both a source of life and a potential threat to the city of London. Historically, the river has experienced significant flooding, particularly during heavy rainfall and storm surges. To combat this threat, the Thames Barrier, one of the most sophisticated flood defense systems in the world, was constructed nearly 50 years ago. This article explores the workings of the Thames Barrier and assesses its effectiveness in mitigating floods.

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London is susceptible to flooding from five primary sources: tidal, fluvial (from rivers and tributaries), surface (from rainfall), sewer, and groundwater flooding. A significant portion of the city is at risk of flooding, with the greatest risk occurring along the River Thames. Climate change is exacerbating this situation, leading to wetter winters and heavier rainfall that can elevate sea levels, thereby increasing both the risk and severity of major flash floods.

The Thames Barrier was constructed in the late 1970s in response to historical flooding events, particularly the catastrophic Great Flood of 1953. Located near Woolwich, the barrier consists of ten steel gates, each weighing over 3,000 tons. These massive structures can be raised to block tidal surges from the North Sea, thereby preventing the River Thames from overflowing into central London. The design reflects a synergy between engineering and environmental considerations, aiming to protect both human and ecological systems.

The operation of the Thames Barrier is overseen by the Environment Agency, which employs a sophisticated network of tide gauges and meteorological stations to monitor tidal conditions and weather patterns. This real-time data allows for timely activation of the gates, ensuring that they can be raised before a predicted surge. When the barrier is not in use, the gates rest in a horizontal position, allowing the river to flow naturally. This design minimizes disruptions to the river’s ecosystem, maintaining its role as a habitat for various species.

An essential aspect of the barrier’s operation is its dual focus on flood defense and ecological health. While the primary aim is to protect London from flooding, the design also ensures that water quality and biodiversity in the Thames are not compromised. By allowing the river to maintain its natural flow when the gates are down, the barrier supports the aquatic life that relies on the river for survival.

Effectiveness of the Thames Barrier in Flood Mitigation

Since becoming operational, the Thames Barrier has successfully prevented significant flooding events, safeguarding both urban and natural environments. It has been closed 221 times to date, demonstrating its effectiveness in protecting millions of residents and vital infrastructure. During severe storms, such as those in 1989 and 2013, the barrier’s timely activation prevented catastrophic flooding, thereby preserving not only human life and property but also protecting the surrounding ecosystems from the stress of inundation.

However, the effectiveness of the Thames Barrier faces growing challenges due to climate change. 

Sea levels are projected to rise by up to one meter globally by 2100, prompting the Environment Agency to accelerate plans to raise tidal defenses upstream of the Thames Barrier by 2050 – 15 years earlier than expected – due to increased flooding risks.

The barrier was designed to handle conditions anticipated until around 2030, but projections indicate that by 2040, it may no longer sufficiently protect London from flooding due to rising sea levels and an increased frequency of severe weather events. This potential inadequacy raises critical environmental concerns, as flooding can lead to habitat destruction, water quality degradation, and increased pollution in the river.

Moreover, while the Thames Barrier is effective against tidal surges, it does not address the risk of inland flooding from heavy rainfall. As urbanization continues, the change in land use can exacerbate runoff, leading to increased flooding risks in non-tidal areas. This situation necessitates a comprehensive approach to flood management that includes both the barrier and additional sustainable practices to mitigate environmental impacts.

Future Challenges and Environmental Adaptations

The challenges posed by climate change and urban development call for innovative adaptations to the flood defense strategy surrounding the Thames Barrier. 

The Thames Estuary 2100 Plan represents a proactive approach to manage future flood risks while considering environmental sustainability. This long-term strategy outlines measures to adapt to climate change impacts, including the construction of new flood defenses and enhancing existing infrastructure.

One key aspect of this plan is the integration of Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) into urban development along the Thames. This includes investing in more permeable pavements and road surfaces, as well as increasing the number of parks and green roofs on buildings. 

These systems are designed to mimic natural drainage processes, reducing surface runoff and promoting groundwater recharge. By implementing SUDS, urban areas can mitigate the risk of inland flooding while enhancing water quality and supporting local ecosystems. This approach not only reduces pressure on the Thames Barrier but also contributes to the overall health of the river and its surrounding environment.

Another critical consideration is the importance of public engagement in flood risk management. Raising awareness about the environmental impacts of flooding and the necessity of sustainable practices can empower communities to take proactive measures. Initiatives that promote environmental stewardship, such as community workshops focused on flood preparedness and biodiversity conservation, can play a vital role in enhancing resilience.

Finally, ongoing research into the ecological impacts of the Thames Barrier is essential. While the barrier has successfully prevented flooding, it is crucial to continuously monitor its effects on water quality, sediment transport, and aquatic life in the Thames. This research can inform future adaptations and improvements, ensuring that the barrier remains effective while supporting the river’s ecosystem.

The post Mitigating Floods: How Does London’s Thames Barrier Work and Is it Effective? appeared first on Earth.Org.

Pesticides, widely used in agriculture and gardening, are substances designed to prevent, destroy, or control pests that threaten crops and human health. Despite contributing to enhance food production and reduce the economic impact of pest-related losses, their widespread use raises significant concerns. This article explores the various problems associated with pesticides, including environmental impacts, human health risks, and the broader ecological consequences.

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Pesticides can have profound negative effects on the environment, particularly on biodiversity. When applied to agricultural fields, these chemicals often run off into nearby water bodies, leading to contamination of rivers, lakes, and oceans. These runoffs can disrupt aquatic ecosystems, leading to phenomena such as algal blooms that deplete oxygen levels, causing fish kills and harming aquatic life. Additionally, the bioaccumulation of pesticides in the food chain poses a risk to higher trophic levels, including birds and mammals that rely on aquatic organisms for food.

An UN Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to food highlights that our pesticide-heavy agricultural practices significantly contribute to biodiversity loss. Pesticides can linger in the environment for decades, threatening the ecological systems vital for food production. Their excessive use contaminates soil and water, diminishing beneficial insect populations that control pests and lowering the nutritional quality of food. 

The impact on terrestrial ecosystems is equally concerning. Pesticides can kill not only targeted pests but also beneficial insects such as pollinators like bees and butterflies, and natural pest predators like ladybugs. The decline of these crucial species can lead to reduced pollination, which is vital for many crops and wild plants, resulting in lower yields and compromised food security. This loss of biodiversity can weaken the resilience of ecosystems, making them less able to cope with environmental changes and more susceptible to diseases and pests.

Long-term use of pesticide can lead to shifts in species composition and dominance in ecosystems as resistant pest species proliferate while their natural enemies are diminished. This can create an ecological imbalance, leading to a cascade of adverse effects on ecosystem health and stability.

Impacts on Human Health 

The health risks associated with pesticide exposure are significant and multifaceted. Although pesticides are intended to target pests, improper or excessive use can negatively affect human health. Prolonged or high-level exposure to specific pesticides has been linked to health issues.

While no one is protected against pesticide exposure and the health effects, a disproportionate burden is felt by people of developing countries. 

The high risk groups exposed to such chemicals include agricultural workers, who are often exposed to pesticides directly, face acute and chronic health issues. Production workers, formulators, sprayers, mixers and loaders are also at risk.

Certain environmental chemicals, particularly pesticides known as endocrine disruptors, can negatively impact health by mimicking or blocking natural hormones in the body. Short-term exposure can lead to symptoms such as headaches, dizziness, skin rashes, nausea, and eye irritation. Research suggests that long-term exposure leads to severe health conditions including respiratory disorders (like asthma), reproductive issues (such as infertility and developmental problems in children), and certain types of cancer (including leukemia and lymphoma). Moreover, the psychological stress associated with pesticide exposure in farming communities is an often-overlooked aspect. Farmers and their families may experience anxiety over health risks, leading to mental health issues and impacting their quality of life.

Consumers are also at risk due to pesticide residues that can remain on fruits and vegetables, even after washing and peeling. Consumer Reports suggests that pesticides presented significant risks in 20% of the foods examined, including bell peppers, blueberries, green beans, potatoes, and strawberries. The cumulative effect of pesticide exposure raises significant concerns about food safety and public health, necessitating stricter regulations and monitoring of pesticide use.

Chronic diseases caused due to pesticide poisoning amount to 1 million annually. 

Long-Term Environmental Impacts

Although pesticides can enhance agricultural productivity in the short term, their long-term effects can undermine the sustainability of farming practices. 

Over-reliance on chemical pesticides can lead to the development of resistant pest populations. As pests evolve resistance, farmers may need to apply increasingly toxic chemicals or higher doses, creating a vicious cycle that exacerbates the problem. This can lead to a scenario where the effectiveness of pesticides diminishes, prompting farmers to seek even more harmful alternatives.

Additionally, the impact on soil health is a critical concern. Pesticides can disrupt the delicate balance of soil microorganisms that are essential for nutrient cycling and maintaining soil fertility. Healthy soil is vital for sustainable agriculture; its degradation can lead to decreased crop yields over time, requiring farmers to use more fertilizers and chemicals to compensate for lost productivity. This not only increases costs for farmers but also contributes to further environmental degradation through nutrient runoff and soil erosion. Smallholder farmers may face increased costs due to the need for more inputs, and the economic burden can lead to a cycle of debt and poverty, particularly in developing countries where access to alternative pest management strategies is limited.
The environmental impact, human health risks, and agricultural sustainability issues associated with pesticide use highlight the need for a re-evaluation of pest management practices. Exploring alternative methods, such as integrated pest management (IPM), organic farming, and biological controls can help mitigate these problems while ensuring food security and protecting both human and environmental health.

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Animal consciousness refers to the experiences or conscious sensation during states of wakeful processing of sensory perception, imagery or dreaming in non-human subjects. The concept is often raised and discussed in relation to animal welfare in bio-industrial farming, animal experimentation for biomedical purposes, and animal rights. 

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In recent years, there have been debates about whether animals, other than humans, have consciousness like we do. To look into the matter, we must first take a step back and understand what consciousness actually means.

A conscious being can be defined to be having subjective experiences of the world and its own body. If you are having a mental experience, you are conscious. We take “experience” to denote the conscious sensation during states of wakeful processing of sensory perception, imagery or dreaming. A motion sensor might be able to sense the environment, but it is probably not aware that it could do so. In clinical practice, states of consciousness are mainly probed by prompting patients to report events with accuracy, usually by verbal expression. A physician would ask patients whether they feel a touch to the skin, hear a particular tone or see a stimulus presented on a screen for example. 

Obviously, since non-human subjects cannot verbally report their experiences, there are very limited neurological methods that can fully study how their mental processes work. Scientists can only describe what they’re able to do, but not explicitly anything of their minds. If we conclude however, that animals do not have consciousness just because of the absence of their verbal report, would we say the same about preverbal infants and patients in a minimally conscious state?

By observing animal behaviour, we can see that they react to the environment too: fight, flight, or curiosity. If we watch mammals or even birds, we will see how they respond to the world. They play. They act frightened when they are in danger. They relax when the environment is calm. In their behaviour, birds appear to offer neurophysiology and neuroanatomy a striking case of parallel evolution of consciousness. There is evidence of near-human-like levels of consciousness observed in African grey parrots. With their incredible intricacies of behaviour, vast ranges of personalities, and the display of play, sleep, fear, and love, it is logical to say that animals possess consciousness the way humans do. 

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Professor Cartmil made a compelling case about consciousness with a concept as simple as “sleeping” in his article Do Horses Gallop in Their Sleep?. Consciousness depletes something in the waking brain, and we cannot keep it up indefinitely. If we stay up and force ourselves to be conscious, we soon start manifesting pathological symptoms, starting with irritability and proceeding through fainting and hallucinations to metabolic collapse and death. The need to sleep is thus not imposed upon us by our environment, but by the needs of the brain itself. If sleeping serves to restore what is depleted by our consciousness, it is reasonable to think that animals that have to sleep are conscious when they are awake. The natural inference is that the waking state in animals is also something like ours.

Not only that, animals also possess a special emotion that many people think only humans show – empathy. In one of the many documented stories of elephants accompanying people, an old woman got lost because she could not see well. She was found the next day with elephants guarding her, encasing her in a cage of branches to protect her from hyenas. One ecologist even witnessed a humpback whale sweeping a seal out of the water and onto its fin to keep it away from nearby killer whales. Though incidents like these seem extraordinary to us because we have only recently documented them, animals have probably been doing these things for millions of years.

The study of animal consciousness has tremendous implications on animal sentience in relation to animal welfare in bio-industrial farming, in procedures for ritual slaughter for example; animal experimentation for biomedical purposes, and also in domestic pet keeping.

It also gives rise to the interesting question of whether machines have a level of sentience or consciousness, and ipso facto may be entitled to certain rights and moral status, given that Artificial Intelligence is developing at such a rapid speed that supra-human performance can be claimed in many areas through self-play. 

Must different species be treated differently depending on their display of moral traits, their history of altruistic deeds, their ability to experience and show emotion, and their specific level of consciousness? Must we have a bill of animal rights in place that can guide us in what is proper and lawful conduct in relation to specific species? How will this impact our diets and dependence on certain animals for food security? And at what level can ethics come into play? These are just some of the many questions researchers and policymakers, with further research, will be able to address in time. 

Featured image by: Pxfuel

This article was originally published on October 6, 2021

The post Explainer: What Is Animal Consciousness? appeared first on Earth.Org.

Soaring temperatures and improper disaster management have resulted in increased desertification rates across the globe. Coupled with droughts and a drop in agricultural productivity, the effects of desertification cannot be ignored. To curb such high rates of land degradation that many regions of the world are experiencing, effective risk management is needed.

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Desertification has a few varying definitions, but mostly centres around semi-arid, sub-humid lands; in simple terms, it can be described as areas with low or variable rainfall. In addition, there is also the added element of human-induced land degradation owing to an expanding population and rampant deforestation.

Land degradation is a systematic global issue. The scale of the problem has been questioned for decades, with estimates of degraded areas ranging between 15-60 million kilometres.

Currently, an estimated 2 billion people live on drylands vulnerable to this phenomenon and scientists predict that the effects of desertification could lead to the displacement of around 50 million people by 2030 as a result of the soaring temperatures, large-scale deforestation, and ecosystem damage in many parts of the world. Alone in Asia, more than 2 billion people will be living in dry-land conditions, while Africa sees at least 1 billion in the same.

What Are the Causes of Desertification?

Land degradation has been ongoing for several decades. Droughts – increasingly frequent extreme weather events caused by global warming – also amplify this situation and can lead to the depletion of nutrients from the soil and the inability of land to regrow plants, resulting in drylands that currently cover about 40% of the globe, from the Mediterranean regions and the south-western parts of the US to Asia and the Middle East. Droughts, coupled with land degradation, give rise to desertification.

But this phenomenon is also caused by activities such as urbanisation, ranching, mining, and clearing of land and emission generation. By further contributing to a rise in temperatures and a reduction in precipitation, human interventions create a vicious cycle that only exacerbates the issue.

The degradation of land leads to a reduction in soil productivity, which can lead to a variety of complexities such as environmental hazards, food insecurity as well as loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. 

Where Does Desertification Occur the Most?

More than 60% of Central Asia is vulnerable to desertification processes. Soaring temperatures in parts of China, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and many other countries have been a cause of concern. Scientists have concluded that, since the 1980s, much of the Central Asian region was classified as having a desert climate. However, the issue has now spread toward northern Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, southern Kazakhstan, and around the areas of the Junggar Basin in north-western China. Mountains across the continental region have become hotter and wetter, resulting in the retreat of glaciers. An example of this is the Tian Shan region in north-western China. Here, an increase in temperature and precipitation in the form of rain instead of snow has contributed to the melting of ice at mountain tops. Thereby, glaciers in Central Asia are unable to replenish ice and as a consequence, less meltwater will flow to nearby regions, causing water shortages that affect people as well as the agricultural sector.

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Desertification is a huge issue also in Africa. For example, poor harvesting and a surge in barren lands continue to plague the inhabitants of Engaruka, Tanzania. In Mauritania, a drop in rainfall has worsened agricultural production and has left many farmers struggling to grow enough food to eat or sell. 

Impact

Desertification is attributed to soaring temperatures and/or drop in precipitation; this is likely to result in the modification and replacement of plant communities by species that are adapted to hotter and drier conditions. The most common change induced by desertification is the conversion of native vegetation by woody plants and invasive shrub species (for example Bufflegrass and Onion-weed in southwest America, and the Tamarisk plant in the Sahara). 

In this regard, Jeffrey Dukes, an ecologist from Carnegie Institution for Science’s Department of Global Ecology at Stanford said: “[Desertification] is going to have consequences for things like the grazing animals that are dependent on the steppe or the grasslands”. In some regions, he adds, extended periods of drought will reduce the land’s productivity until it becomes ‘dead’ soil. 

Desertification can also cause loss of biodiversity and loss of aquifers. In Africa, with nearly 45% of the landmass experiencing desertification, many people face even greater risks. In Mauritania, the dire situation has caused food insecurity, housing problems and population health declines. Villagers are trying to migrate as their houses become buried under the sand in addition to a lack of water sources and income. 

Desertification has also led to an increase in the frequency of dust storms. Particulate matter, pathogens, and allergens are detrimental to human health. The health effects caused by dust storms are greatest in the areas in the immediate vicinity of their origin and regions like the Sahara Desert, Central, and eastern Asia, the Middle East, and Australia are largely affected. In places such as the Sahara region, the Middle East, and South as well as East Asia, dust storms have been attributed to causing approximately 15–50% of all cardiopulmonary deaths.

The impacts of desertification in conjunction with climate change on socio-economic systems were also exemplified in an IPCC Report on climate change and land degradation. The report suggests that the interplay between desertification and climate change greatly affects the achievement of the targets of SDGs 13 (climate action) and 15 (life on land), thereby highlighting the need for efficient policy actions on land degradation neutrality and climate change mitigation.

How Do We Solve Desertification?

A new global approach of proactive action and risk management efforts is warranted in today’s changing landscape and climate. Droughts seem to be concurrent with desertification in many parts of the Earth. 

In Niger, local bodies have rehabilitated land to restore soil fertility, which has positively affected the country whose economy is largely dependent on agriculture. Here, the smallholder farmers have taken the initiative into their own hands by developing the principle of farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR). This technique involves the regeneration and multiplication of valuable trees whose roots already lay underneath their land, encouraging significant tree growth. Felled tree stumps, sprouting root systems, and seeds are regrown; this has boosted soil productivity, improved agricultural income and the lands are greener than before.

Village communities in Kenya and Tanzanian are fighting droughts and desertification by digging semi-circular trenches that store water when it rains, thereby retaining moisture for plants and trees. 

Some World Bank-funded projects have helped carry out ecological restoration and fixing of sand dunes in north-western China. One of the major problems of desertification is the migration or shifting of sands threatening infrastructure, villages, and irrigated farmland. Stabilisation of dunes (synonymously dune-fixing) is based on the straw-checkerboard technique. This technique involves planting straws of wheat, rice, reeds, and other plants in a checkerboard shape where half is buried and the other half is exposed. Desertification control efforts have also benefited several communities living in these areas by creating jobs and increasing incomes through the growing of sand-fixing shrub species and greenhouses.

Several other countries have already taken charge of curbing land degradation through tree-planting efforts. A nationwide ongoing effort is the “Great Green Wall of China” which has aimed to plant 88 million acres of forests in a 3000-mile network with a goal to tackle deforestation. A similar anti-desertification tree planting ambition, “Great Green Wall” of Africa has also been moving steadily since its inception in 2007. The plan to restore the degraded lands of the Sahel Region has had its fair share of progress and setbacks, but last year’s major boost announced at the One Planet Summit has planned to accelerate its completion in order to support the local farmers and support the agriculture business.

Every year, the United Nations observes the World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought, an occasion to promote public awareness of the presence of desertification and drought. This day is considered a unique moment to remind people of the ways in which land degradation can be solved through efficient problem-solving techniques and the cooperation between local, governmental, and environmental bodies. 

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In May 2022, the 15th Conference of Parties (COP15) of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) brought together ministers, high-level officials, the private sector, NGOs, and stakeholders to adopt resolutions that aim to drive progress in the protection and restoration of land. Among the resolutions adopted to curb desertification were the development of land restoration projects as well as increasing efforts to involve women in land management and collect gender-disaggregated data on the impacts of desertification and droughts. Promoting land-based jobs for youth and land-based youth entrepreneurship to strengthen youth participation and robust data monitoring of land restoration processes was also highlighted. Another key moment from this event was the launch of the Abidjan Legacy Programme; a US$2.5 billion project to strengthen supply chains while tackling the issues of deforestation and climate change. 

The takeaways from this are straightforward: A call to action and risk management efforts should be at the forefront of every planned proposal to curb environmental degradation. Be it land, soil, or water, efficient cooperation, and community efforts will certainly go a long way in mitigating the consequences of climate change and environmental degradation. 

This article was originally published on August 3, 2022.

The post Desertification: Causes, Effects, And Solutions appeared first on Earth.Org.

Part of the European Union’s Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, the Nature Restoration Law is the latest bold and ambitious piece of environmental legislation passed by the bloc. Its aim is to reverse the loss of natural ecosystems. The law is the first of its kind, setting bloc-wide legally binding restoration targets that all member states must aim to meet.

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The ongoing biodiversity crisis was again confirmed by the 2024 Living Planet Report. Global average population sizes of monitored vertebrate species have declined by 73% since 1970 (freshwater: -85%, terrestrial: -69%, marine: -56%). Habitat loss was found to be the number one driver of population declines. In the European Union (EU), 81% of habitats and 63% of protected species are considered to have a “poor” conservation status. 

The loss of species and habitats is devastating and critical actions are needed to reverse the loss of biodiversity on Earth. Through their Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, the EU aims to do just that.

EU Regulation 2024/1991, better known as the Nature Restoration Law, was passed by the European Council in June 2024 and came into force two months later. This regulation will require all EU member states to draft and begin implementing national restoration plans by July 2026. This gives member states two years to plan, coordinate, and begin restoration efforts. 

Goals and Targets

The EU aims to restore 30% of degraded freshwater, terrestrial, and coastal habitats by 2030. This goal is increased to restoring 60% by 2040 and 90% by 2050. The law focuses specifically on habitats listed for protection under Annex I of the Habitats Directive. In their national restoration plans, each member state must also aim to meet these percentage targets within their country’s borders. Some habitat types, namely peatlands, have separate targets from the overall goal and are considered high-priority. 

Additional restoration targets include:

• Rewetting 25% of degraded peatlands by 2030;
• Restoring 25,000 kilometers (15,534 miles) of “free-flowing” rivers and floodplains through the removal of obsolete artificial barriers (dams, weirs, etc.);
• Ensuring no net loss of urban green spaces or tree coverage, and aim to increase these areas within cities after 2030;
• As a Union, plant at least 3 billion additional trees by 2030;
• Reverse the decline of pollinator populations.

Concerns From Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries Sectors

Opposition was presented to the law when first proposed in 2022 and throughout the negotiation process in 2023 and 2024. The opposition was primarily from European farmers with members of the forestry and fisheries sectors also voicing their concerns. The farmer strikes that occurred across Europe in 2023 and early 2024 were partially in opposition to the strict environmental regulations being placed on the agricultural sector, including in the Nature Restoration Law. Protests led by member states in the Eastern bloc were strongly against the objective of peatland rewetting as they voiced that it would take away crop land. 

The forestry and fisheries sectors shared similar concerns that increased protections on land and new restoration efforts would limit economic output possible from these activities. 

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Benefits For Biodiversity and the Climate

Restoring natural ecosystems was identified as a key priority in the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Restoring degraded habitats, like peatlands and forests, contributes greatly to natural carbon sequestration. 

As the number one driver of biodiversity loss, reversing the loss of habitats will also allow for populations of wildlife and marine life to survive and likely recover. Human society as well will benefit from the restoration of natural areas. Habitats like mangroves and floodplains are incredibly effective at reducing damage from natural hazards like storms and flooding. The tandem of suitable habitat and soil biodiversity also provides services like nutrient cycling to agricultural lands that could actually benefit agriculture, rather than harm it.

Outlook

The EU’s Nature Restoration Law is hailed by many as one of the most significant pieces of environmental legislation to date. It was designed to work in tandem with other EU legislation like the Habitats Directive, Birds Directive, Climate Law, Water Framework Directive, and others. It will play a role in helping the EU meet its commitments to the Global Biodiversity Framework (specifically Target 2) as a signee of the Convention on Biological Diversity. 

The detailed requirements for national restoration plans will hopefully promote effective planning and implementation of the law. Member states must include implementation timelines, funding sources and needs, as well as the anticipated benefits of all planned projects completed under the law. Progress reports are also required every six years after implementation of plans begins in 2026. 

At least “on paper,” the EU has set an example of powerful environmental action for the rest of the world to follow and continues to add on to its ambitious legislative array under the European Green Deal. Only time will tell if the bloc will be able to deliver on its commitments.

The post Explainer: All You Need to Know About the EU Nature Restoration Law appeared first on Earth.Org.

The UN Conference of the Parties, better known as COP, was established under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It serves as a pivotal platform for international climate negotiations, bringing together nations to address the pressing challenges posed by climate change. COP meetings, which take place annually, serve as a critical venue for countries to collaborate on strategies and agreements aimed at mitigating global warming and fostering sustainable development.

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Every year, nations that are part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) gather for the Conference of the Parties, better known as COP. The summit serves to evaluate their progress, negotiate collective strategies to combat climate change and foster international cooperation on climate issues. 198 Parties are currently part of the Convention – 197 states and the EU

The UNFCCC is a multilateral treaty established in 1992, following the release of the first assessment report, by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1990. This report provided a comprehensive evaluation of the scientific understanding of climate change at that time. IPCC reports are regarded as the most authoritative source of information on climate change science. 

Its primary goal is to stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations – the single-largest driver of climate change – at a level that prevents harmful, human-induced interference with the climate system.

Since entering into force in 1994, the UNFCCC and its annual gatherings have built the foundation for international climate negotiations, resulting in significant agreements such as the 1997 Kyoto Protocol and the 2015 Paris Agreement.

The hosting of COP meetings rotates among the five UN regional groups: Africa, Asia-Pacific, Eastern Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Western Europe and Others. According to the UN, members of these groups decide which country will host each conference.

The inaugural COP was held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995. This year’s summit, COP29, is set to take place in Baku, Azerbaijan, between November 11 and November 22.

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Not Just Climate COPs

The term COP can also denote governance meetings of other treaty bodies. In addition to the UNFCCC COP29, two other significant environmental COPs were planned for 2024:

• The UN Convention on Biological Diversity, also known as COP16, which centers on nature and biodiversity, took place in October in Cali, Colombia.
• The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), set to take place in December in Saudi Arabia.

COP meetings have marked significant milestones in the climate movement by setting standards and promoting initiatives aimed at reducing carbon emissions, expediting the shift to renewable energy, and helping countries adapt to and enhance their resilience against climate-related challenges. These conferences play a crucial role in bringing governments together and uniting the private sector, industries, and individuals to address the climate crisis in all its aspects.

Structure of the COP 

COP meetings are vital for advancing global climate action under the UNFCCC. These meetings typically begin with plenary sessions, wherein representatives from nearly every country gather to discuss key issues, attend speeches and introduce major agenda items for negotiations.

To facilitate more focused discussions, the agenda is split across various negotiations groups that tackle specific topics such as mitigation, adaptation, finance and technology transfer. This structure allows for detailed dialogue and the development of proposals to be presented in plenary. 

Alongside such proceedings, dozens of side events are held organized by governments, NGOs and other stakeholders. These provide opportunities for networking, collaboration and showcasing innovative climate solutions. 

Many COP meetings include exhibitions and pavilions where countries and organizations showcase their climate initiatives and new technologies. At the end of each COP, the outcomes are compiled into a final document called the “COP Decision.” The document outlines the agreements reached and commitments made, serving as a reference for countries as they implement their climate pledges and highlighting the importance of accountability in the negotiation process.

Milestones 

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty adopted in 1997 under the UNFCCC, committing its parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in recognition of the reality of global warming and the role of human-made carbon dioxide emissions. It established legally binding targets for developed countries, aiming for an overall reduction of 5.2% below 1990 levels during the first commitment period from 2008 to 2012.

To support compliance, the Protocol introduced flexibility mechanisms such as emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI), enabling countries to meet their targets in a cost-effective manner. It also acknowledged the principle of differentiated responsibilities, emphasizing that developed countries have a greater obligation to reduce emissions due to their historical contributions to climate change. Additionally, the Protocol mandated that parties monitor and report their emissions, ensuring both transparency and accountability.

While the Kyoto Protocol represented a significant advancement in international climate policy and set the stage for future agreements like the Paris Agreement, it encountered challenges, including the withdrawal of key emitting countries and the need for broader involvement from developing nations.

Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on December 12, 2015 and entered into force in November 2016.

The agreement united nations in a shared commitment to limit global warming to “well below 2C” above pre-industrial levels, with an aspirational goal of limiting the temperature increase to 1.5C. It emphasizes the need for nations to enhance their capacity to adapt to climate change and build resilience. Additionally, the Paris Agreement underscores the importance of aligning financial flows with low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development, ensuring that funding supports sustainability and mitigates climate risks.

Central to the agreement is the obligation for all parties to submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), detailing their specific plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve climate resilience. The agreement follows a five-year cycle, prompting countries to regularly review and enhance their commitments over time.

Check out our book review ‘Landing the Paris Agreement’ By Todd Stern.

What Happened at COP28?

At the last UN climate summit held in Dubai, countries reached an unprecedented agreement, the first in the history of COPs to explicitly call for “transitioning away” from fossil fuels. The deal addresses a range of critical issues, including climate finance, adaptation, food security, and gender. 

On the first day of COP28, countries reached an agreement to operationalize the Loss and Damage Fund, which was initially established at COP27. The fund is designed to provide financial support specifically to vulnerable nations in the Global South for the losses and damage they incur because of climate change.  This initiative aims to address the urgent needs of these countries, helping them to recover and adapt to the ongoing effects of climate change.

COP28 marked a historic milestone with the first Global Stocktake (GST), a thorough evaluation of nations’ progress toward their climate goals. Recognized as a key outcome of the summit, the GST encompassed all negotiated elements and provided a foundation for countries to enhance their climate action plans, which they are required to update and make available by 2025.

The stocktake underscored the scientific consensus that global greenhouse gas emissions need to be reduced by 43% by 2030 compared to 2019 levels to limit global warming to 1.5C as set in the Paris accord. It revealed that countries were not on track to meet the targets and called for urgent collective action on a global scale to triple renewable energy capacity and double improvements in energy efficiency by 2030.

More on the topic: Did COP28 Succeed or Fail?

Future of COP

Despite the significance of COPs, the conferences face several notable challenges that will impact their future. The effectiveness of negotiations is often hindered by differences in political will between developed and developing countries. Even when agreements are successfully made, the challenges of ensuring compliance and effective implementation persist. Additionally, securing adequate financial support for developing nations to adapt to climate change and transition sustainable practices remains a challenge. 

The next two years are crucial. 

At COP29, governments must establish a new climate finance goal that reflects the scale and urgency of the climate crisis. Central to the discussions will be the emphasis on fostering international cooperation. The Baku summit will prioritize financial strategies to mobilize the trillions of dollars necessary for climate change mitigation and adaptation, providing nations with an opportunity to reassess their financial commitments and set new targets. 

By COP30, governments need to present updated nationally determined contributions (NDCs) that are comprehensive, encompass all greenhouse gases, and align with the 1.5C temperature limit.

Follow our COP29 coverage.

The post Navigating COP: A Deep Dive into the UN Climate Conference Process appeared first on Earth.Org.

A little under 3,000 climate litigation cases seeking to hold governments and corporations accountable for their actions have been filed around the world since 1986. The past decade has seen an unprecedented surge in such cases and dozens of landmark victories around the world. But what exactly is climate litigation, how powerful of an instrument is it really in the fight against climate change, and where is it heading?

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Climate change litigation cases seeking to hold governments and corporations accountable for their actions are on the rise worldwide, as suggested in a recent Gratham Institute report.

2023, the hottest year in our planet’s history, was an important year for climate change litigation globally, with national and international courts ruling and advising on fundamental climate matters. Landmark cases brought forward by people from all walks of life have paved the way for others to come forward. They have also proven that citizen action can succeed in holding businesses and governments accountable for their actions.

In this article, Earth.Org looks at what climate litigation is and how it has evolved and grown in the past five decades. It also spotlights key cases that shook the world and shaped this emerging legal field.

What Is Climate Litigation?

Individuals of all ages, environmental groups, and affected communities have been increasingly seeking legal avenues to hold government and corporations accountable for their contribution to climate change and inaction, with rather positive results.

In the past decade, climate litigation has consolidated as a popular strategy in tackling the ongoing climate crisis – or, as the United Nations Environment Programme puts it, as “a frontier solution to change the dynamics of the fight against climate change.” It has been described as an “attempt to control, order or influence the behaviour of others in relation to climate governance,” and it has been used by governments, private actors, civil society and individuals locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally.

The Global Climate Change Litigation database is the most comprehensive database on the matter. Set up in 2011, it is regularly updated by the Sabin Center for Climate Change Law, an affiliated center of the Columbia Climate School at Columbia University.

As of September 17, 2024, the database contained 2,796 cases – 1,850 filed in the US and 946 in the rest of the world. 70% of these cases have been filed in the past decade alone (2015-2024), following the adoption of the landmark Paris Agreement. It also includes cases brought before international or regional courts or tribunals.

At present, the database features cases from over 55 countries – with the US, the UK, Brazil, and Germany leading the way. Little over 200 cases have been recorded in the Global South, with Brazil accounting for 88 of them.

The database classifies cases filed around the world – except in the US – as (1) lawsuits against governments (including those challenging environmental assessment and permitting, human rights violations and environmental crimes) and (2) lawsuits against corporations and individuals.

It also keeps track of requests for advisory opinions submitted to national and international courts. Advisory opinions are non-legally-binding advises issued by a court regarding the constitutionality or interpretation of a specific law.

Meanwhile, cases filed in the US are organized by type of claim, such as (1) federal statutory claims (such as those challenging the National Environmental policy Act and the Endangered Species Act); (2) constitutional claims; (3) state law claims; (4) common law claims; and (5) public trust claims. It also lists cases concerning the regulation, marketing, and commercialization of carbon offsets and credits; trade agreements; and climate adaptation.

Around 5% of all cases have been filed before international or regional courts, human rights tribunals and authorities, with nearly half of the total (44 cases as of September 2024) filed before the Courts of Justice of the European Union.

Recent Trends and Key Cases

The aforementioned report by the Gratham Research Institute, published earlier this year, identified a “consolidation and concentration of strategic litigation efforts” around the world. At least 230 new cases were filed globally, with countries such as Panama and Portugal seeing their first-ever climate lawsuits.

To better understand the drivers of litigation, the Institute developed a typology of the types of behaviour that cases seek to discourage or incentivise.

Of the 233 cases documented last year, 97 (nearly 42%) were classified as “integrating climate consideration cases,” i.e. “cases that seek to integrate climate considerations, standards, or principles into a given decision or sectoral policy, with the dual goal of stopping specific harmful policies and projects, and mainstreaming climate concerns in policymaking.”

47 cases filed last year concerned “climate-washing,” meaning they challenged “inaccurate government or corporate narratives regarding contributions to the transition to a low-carbon future.” The report noted that more than 140 such cases have been filed to date worldwide, particularly in the last few years. Targets of these cases include polluting companies such as airlines, major fossil fuel companies as well as financial institutions over misleading claims to sell their financial products and services.

Among the highest-profile and most frequently discussed cases are what the Gratham Research Institute describes as “government framework cases.” These are lawsuits “that challenge the ambition or implementation of climate targets and policies affecting the whole of a country’s economy and society.”

More than 110 such cases have been filed around the world since the Paris Agreement was passed in 2015, with 15 new filed last year. They target government’s policy responses to the climate crisis, often in relation to the Paris accord, as well as the enforcement of climate protection measures to meet environmental targets. Plaintiffs often build their case on the basis that specific climate goals or protection measures are in violation of basic human rights and increase their vulnerabilities to climate change impacts.

Another way of holding governments and corporations accountable is to challenge their “failure to adapt” to climate change, i.e. “to take climate risk into account.” 64 such cases were filed since 2015, mostly at US and Australian courts.

According to a 2023 report by the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP), adaptation cases are still limited. Indeed, besides having to provide evidence of failure to address past and current climate change impacts – a prerequisite for cases about mitigation – adaptation lawsuits must also account for projections of future impacts.

The report also identified five new cases concerning the “polluter pays” principle – the idea that the costs of polluting activities should be borne by the party who caused it, rather than the individual or community who suffer from the consequences of pollution. These cases typically seek “monetary damages from defendants based on an alleged contribution to harmful impacts of climate change.” Of the 34 such cases filed since 2015, mostly in the US, the majority remain open.

More on the topic: Explainer: What Is the Polluter Pays Principle and How Can It Be Used in Climate Policy?

It is important to note than not all climate litigation cases are necessarily supportive of climate action. In some cases, corporations may file lawsuits to obstruct or hinder climate policies that affect their operations.

According to the Gratham Research Institute report, nearly 50 of all climate litigation cases filed in 2023 were not aligned with climate targets. These involved disputes over the incorporation of climate risk into financial decision-making and “just transition cases” challenging “the distributional impacts of climate policy or the processes by which policies were developed, normally on human rights grounds.” Strategic Litigation Against Public Participation (SLAPP) have also become a common tool to censor, intimidate, or silence critics by burdening them with costly lawsuits, often on grounds that the critiques are defamatory. Journalists, media outlets, and human rights defenders are the main targets of such lawsuits.

In May, the European Union introduced new rules to combat the use of SLAPPs, allowing those targeted by these lawsuits to request a case dismissal early as manifestly unfounded. Those who have brought the legal challenge forward also risk having to bear the costs of the proceedings as well as potential penalties.

Plaintiffs and Defendants

A look at recent climate litigation cases uncovers a growing effort by civil society actors to use the courts to raise awareness about climate action and hold powerful polluters accountable. Individuals and NGOs are beyond most climate cases and about 70% of all cases filed in 2023.

Young people have also increasingly been at the forefront of climate litigation. Many of them have scored historic victories, strengthening youth climate movements worldwide and inspiring fellow activists to follow suit.

Overall, young people often demonstrate a more profound understanding of climate change compared to adults and older generations. According to a InterClimate Network survey published in 2021, more than 8 in 10 young people are concerned about climate change and think it is already having a negative effect on people’s lives. Three-quarters of those surveyed also said they believe the climate crisis will affect their life in the future.

Meanwhile, a 2021 Lancet survey of 10,000 people aged 16-25 across ten countries revealed that more than 50% experienced emotions related to climate anxiety. The study identified dissatisfaction with government responses to the climate crisis as a factor driving anxiety and feelings of betrayal among young people.

For many, these feelings have translated into action campaigns, whether it is through peaceful protests and public disruption campaigns or through the courts. Global climate movements such as Greta Thunberg’s Fridays for Future have brought the topic into the mainstream in recent years, allowing a new generation of young climate leaders – often nicknamed “the climate generation” – to push for change and educate the rest of the world about climate change.

“The climate crisis won’t be solved by any one country doing particularly well, but it won’t be solved if even one country doesn’t get on board,” Hyunjung Yoon, a young South Korean activist, told Earth.Org in September. “Young climate activists around the world are building their own movements in different environments, but I believe we are in this together.”

Yoon is one of 19 young plaintiffs who recently scored a landmark win at South Korea’s Constitutional Court, which ruled that the country’s climate targets are unconstitutional.

Governments, companies, and trade associations also file climate cases. The report suggests that “many but by no means all” cases filed by the latter two are not aligned with climate action. These three actors are also the main defendants in climate litigation, with governments historically targeted by the majority of cases. In 2023, over 70% of all cases involved government actors among the defendants compared to 26% involving companies, according to the report.

As some of the aforementioned cases show, companies across different sectors are increasingly the target of climate lawsuits, notably since the enactment of the Paris Agreement. Targeted industries include fossil fuels, airlines, food and beverage, e-commerce, and financial services. Of all cases filed last year, the majority involved companies dealing with fossil fuel exploration, production, and transportation, closely followed by transport, freight and storage companies and business services. Retail, agriculture, and fashion companies were also targeted, albeit in smaller numbers.

Impact

Courtrooms around the world have become a key battleground in the public debate over climate change, and recent verdicts have sent an unequivocal message to the world – that climate action is a legal duty.

In 2022, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) – the most authoritative scientific body on climate change – recognized that climate litigation “has influenced the outcome and ambition of climate governance,” adding that its impact is “promising.”

Recent research has demonstrated that the impact of climate litigation extends beyond the parties involved and also affects public opinion and future litigation. Considerable media attention that environmental litigation generates can also influence how climate policy is perceived.

As some lawyers put it: “Whilst environmental related litigation is both complex and costly, it is not just the outcome that is important. The activism and attention that environmental litigation generates can be just as (if not more) significant as a court judgment for ‘win’ or ‘lose’.”

In recent years, there has been a notable surge in the prevalence of climate change litigation with strategic intent. These cases are strategically designed to push for more ambitious climate-related objectives. They seek to impact policies, uphold standards, question the allocation of public resources, and scrutinize the reliability and precision of disclosures related to climate matters. Through these legal actions, stakeholders aim to drive systemic change, compel governments and institutions to uphold higher environmental standards, and ensure transparency and accountability in climate-related decision-making processes.

Climate litigation has successfully challenged governments’ climate targets and agendas as well as their authorization of high-emitting projects, setting important precedents for climate action and emissions reduction. The landmark “Urgenda” case in 2019, which saw the Netherlands’ top court ordering the Dutch government to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 25% by the end of 2020 compared with 1990 levels, made global headlines and has had ripple effects around the world.

Polluting companies are also increasingly being held accountable for their actions and ordered to compensate for the damage they cause. These cases also carry serious reputational and supply chain risks.

No matter the outcome, climate litigation plays a crucial role in shaping the discourse around climate change, holding key actors accountable, and advancing the global agenda for sustainable and responsible environmental practices.

The post Explainer: Climate Litigation – Trends and Impact appeared first on Earth.Org.

As climate change continues to intensify, heatwaves are becoming more frequent and severe, posing significant health risks to individuals and communities. Understanding how to stay safe during these extreme temperatures is crucial for protecting against heat-related illnesses. This article explores essential tips and strategies to keep cool and safe when the mercury rises, ensuring you can navigate the challenges of a heatwave effectively.

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This is part 3 of a three-part explainer series on extreme heat. Read part 1 and part 2.

If you read the previous articles of our heat series, you will know that cities around the world rely on warning systems to inform their residents about the arrival of a heatwave and share recommendations. Understanding how these warning systems work and knowing when they are in place are essential steps in protecting yourself from excessive heat.

Below are some recommendations on how you can keep yourself informed:

• Follow local weather services: Check local meteorological services or news channels regularly, as they provide real-time updates and alerts about heat advisories and warnings. Local governments and emergency management agencies often post timely updates on social media platforms as well so keep them monitored.
• Use weather apps: Download reputable weather apps that provide notifications about extreme heat conditions. Many of these apps allow users to set alerts for specific weather events in their area.
• Sign up for emergency alerts: Many cities have rolled out local emergency notification systems or community alert programs that citizens can easily enroll in. These services often send text or email alerts directly to residents during extreme weather events, including heatwaves.

To offer protection to their citizens during extreme and prolonged heat events, local authorities can open temporary shelters and cooling centers. Knowing what your options are and where these places are located can be beneficial in situations where quick decision-making is crucial, such as during emergencies, travel planning, or when seeking essential services in unfamiliar areas.

By staying informed, residents can take proactive measures to protect their health and safety, including planning their activities, seeking shade, and ensuring proper hydration. Below are key rules and strategies that will keep you safe.

Tips to Stay Safe During a Heatwave

1. Hydration

In sweltering conditions, the human body dehydrates quickly, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, dizziness, and heat-related illnesses like heat exhaustion or heat stroke.

Dehydration is a consequence of sweating, the body’s natural cooling mechanism. Through sweat evaporation, skin and body cool down. However, this process also leads to a significant loss of fluids and electrolytes and a decrease in the volume of blood, 90% of which is water. When this occurs, the heart rate increases as a way to maintain adequate blood flow and oxygen delivery to vital organs.

This elevated heart rate can put additional strain on the cardiovascular system, increasing the risk of heat-related illnesses. Inadequate hydration can also reduce the heart’s efficiency, potentially leading to fatigue and a higher likelihood of heat exhaustion or heat stroke.

So, while keeping hydrated is always key for overall health, it is especially important in hot conditions.

Research suggests that a person should drink around two liters of water per day, or about eight glasses, during non-heatwave times. In heat conditions, the body needs more. Experts recommend drinking throughout the day and urinating around six to seven times a day, or every two to three hours. Pale urine is a good indicator of optimal hydration, while darker, strong-smelling urine in small amounts can be a sign that your body is dehydrated.

In its guidelines for outdoor workers working in the heat, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends drinking one cup of water (approximately 8 onces or about 250 milliliters), every 15-20 minutes, as “drinking at shorter intervals is more effective than drinking large amounts infrequently.” At the same time, the agency discourages an hourly intake higher than 48 ounces (about 1.4 liters).

Similar tips apply to those who have been sweating from physical activity or from being unwell.

As for what to drink, water is by far the best way to replace lost fluids. By contrast, alcohol can cause dehydration. Experts also discourage drinks like tea, coffee, and energy drinks for a similar reason, besides the fact that they can increase heart rate and blood pressure in some individuals.

2. Nutrition

During a heatwave, appetite typically decreases. This has to do with the hypothalamus, a structure deep in your brain that acts as the body’s smart control coordinating center for both body temperature and hunger. When engaged in temperature regulation, the hypothalamus’s focus on hunger diminishes.

“[D]uring hot weather, our bodies naturally tend to eat less, as the hypothalamus prioritizes temperature control. It’s an important adaptive response to reduce heat production from digestion while managing body temperature,” explains Lizzy Davis, Assistant Professor and Dietitian Education Program Director at the University of Alabama at Birmingham’s Department of Nutrition Sciences.

But despite a lack of appetite, eating nutritious foods during a heatwave is almost as import as keeping hydrated. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends eating small meals frequently throughout the day.

Experts recommend sticking to hydrating, fresh food, those that contain a high percentage of fluids and will thus best hydrate the body. Examples include watermelon, peaches, berries, grapes, and oranges, vegetables that can be juiced, such as spinach, cucumbers, olives, beets, and carrots as well as liquid meals such as soups.

Spicy food is known to make the body sweat as it activates heat receptors in the mouth. For this reason, expert advise against it when it is hot. Similarly, the unhealthy fats contained in fried food can increase the body temperature and they also require more energy to digest, potentially leading to discomfort, sluggishness, and further dehydration in hot conditions.

Experts also recommend avoiding cooking at home during a heatwave or opting for a microwave instead of an oven as a way to keep the environment cool.

3. Clothing

During a heatwave, choosing the right clothing is essential for comfort and health. Experts recommend lightweight, loose-fitting garments made from breathable fabrics such as cotton and linen. These materials allow sweat to evaporate more easily, helping to regulate body temperature. Remember: it is not sweat per se that cools the body down but rather the evaporation of that moisture from the skin. According to WHO guidelines, it is best to avoid synthetic fabrics as they trap heat and moisture.

A 2021 study published in Lancet observed that heatstrokes are commonly seen in otherwise healthy individuals and workers who engage in intense physical activity that generates significant heat. The authors found that this condition often occurs when clothing or equipment hinders the body’s ability to cool down, particularly in temperate to hot environments.

The debate surrounding the best clothing color during a heat event is more complicated. While it is widely accepted that light-colored clothes are a good choice because they reflect sunlight and reduce heat absorption, experts hold mixed opinions about dark fabrics.

Some argue that dark colors trap heat from the sun and are therefore not advisable. For instance, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies recommends to “avoid dark colors since they absorb heat.” However, studies have shown that dark clothing can effectively radiate heat away from the body, allowing it to dissipate more efficiently than white clothing, which tends to reflect heat back.

This theory was supported by a 1980 study examining why Bedouins in the hot desert wear black robes. The study concluded that “the amount of heat gained by a Bedouin exposed to the hot desert is the same whether he wears a black or a white robe,” and that “the additional heat absorbed by the black robe was lost before it reached the skin.”

Additionally, layering can be beneficial, as it allows for adjustments based on changes in temperature throughout the day. Lightweight scarves can provide protection against sunburn while still being easy to remove. As a 2021 study states: “Removing or modifying clothing or protective equipment reduces resistance to sweat evaporation and convective heat exchange at skin surface.”

Whenever outdoors on a hot day, the WHO also recommends applying sunscreen as well as wearing a wide-brimmed hat and sunglasses to protect the skin from harmful UV rays, even on cloudy days.

4. Exercise

For those exercising outdoors, the CDC recommends doing so during the cooler parts of the day, particularly in the early morning and late evening. However, experts highlight that the urban heat island effect can complicate this guidance in cities.

Urban areas often retain heat due to materials like concrete and asphalt, which absorb warmth during the day and release it slowly at night. As a result, evening temperatures in cities can remain significantly higher than in rural areas, potentially making late workouts feel hotter than anticipated. Therefore, those exercising in urban environments should be mindful of this effect and consider alternative times or locations to ensure a safer and more comfortable exercise experience.

A 2021 study published in Lancet also recommends taking 5 to 10-minute breaks regularly, as they help reduce metabolic heat production sufficiently and thus lower the body’s temperature. Whenever possible, take breaks in the shade or indoors to allow your body to cool down faster.

The CDC also reinforces the importance of sensible attire during extreme heat: lightweight, loose-fitting clothing made of breathable fabrics, such as cotton, linen, bamboo, polyester, nylon and microfiber.

You might also like: Climate Change Crashed the Paris Olympics. Is This It For the Games?

Lighter exercises like walking, stretching, or yoga are preferred over strenuous and high intensity workouts. Warm-up and cool-down should not be neglected as they can help your body adjust more gradually to temperature changes.

Hydration, as mentioned above, is key. Experts recommend hydrating well before a workout and drinking throughout every 15-20 minutes, especially when the physical activity lasts longer than an hour. For prolonged or intense activities, consider sports drinks that replenish electrolytes lost through sweat. After your workout, continue to hydrate to help your body recover and cool down.

Understand the Symptoms and Act Accordingly

Taking all the precautions in the world may not always be sufficient, which is why it is crucial to understand how heat-related issues manifest.

Common signs include excessive sweating, weakness, dizziness, nausea, and confusion. Once you recognize the symptoms, do not ignore them. If you or someone else exhibits signs of heat exhaustion or heat stroke, take immediate action such as moving to a cooler location, hydrating, and resting or seek medical help.

Recognizing symptoms early can prevent serious health issues such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke and it is especially important for vulnerable populations, including the elderly, children, and those with preexisting health conditions. Keep an eye on elderly relatives, neighbors, or anyone who may be more susceptible to heat-related illnesses.

Below are some tips on how to lower the body temperature:

• Drink plenty of water throughout the day. Staying hydrated helps your body regulate temperature and prevents overheating
• Take a cool shower or a bath
• Apply cold packs or damp cloths or towel to pulse points, such as the wrists, neck, and forehead. This can provide immediate relief and help lower your body temperature.
• Utilize fans to increase air circulation. If possible, place a bowl of ice in front of a fan for a cooling breeze
• Practice deep breathing exercises, which can help calm your body and reduce the perception of heat
• Keep your home cool by closing the curtains during the hottest parts of the day and opening windows at night time

Featured image: Kyle Lam/hongkongfp.com.

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Read part 1 of our heat series, where we looks at how extreme heat affects the human body and what socio-economic and physiological factors play a role, and part 2, where we look at how cities are adapting to extreme heat.

The post Silent Killer Part 3: How to Stay Safe in Extreme Heat appeared first on Earth.Org.

The Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD) provides companies with the tools and responsibilities clearly defined to drive corporate transformation towards a more sustainable, nature-positive future. Earth.Org takes a closer look.

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The world is currently dealing with a triple planetary crisis: climate change, pollution and biodiversity loss. In 2022, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) released the Living Planet Report. The study highlights the current status of biodiversity and embraces a nature-positive approach and promotes the idea that embedding nature more explicitly into financial and economic systems can help drive more sustainable choices. 

Although the need for action is evident, many businesses and financial organisations currently lack the information required to fully comprehend the risks and opportunities arising from their impacts and reliance on nature. The Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures (TNFD) aims to address this gap by integrating nature into corporate reporting and strategic planning, providing improved information to decision-makers.

The TNFD Framework for Corporate Reporting

Announced in June 2021 as a response to a global decline in nature and biodiversity, the taskforce intends to position nature at the core of business decisions through its recommendations and guidelines.Released in September 2023, the TNFD framework is based on the structure of the Taskforce on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD). This is to ensure faster adoption of its principles in the market. Recommendations of the TNFD are also consistent with Target 15 of the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), which requires businesses to assess, disclose and reduce biodiversity-related risks and impacts. This target, along with other targets of the GBF, is to be achieved by 2030.

The TNFD recommends 14 voluntary disclosures organised around four pillars:

1. Governance: Companies should provide details regarding their governance processes and controls used to monitor and manage nature-related issues. This information helps assess if these issues are given adequate focus by the board and the management, and if the organisation’s governance bodies possess the necessary skills and expertise to address these concerns effectively.
2. Strategy: This relates to the approach that the organisation uses to manage nature-related issues. Companies should describe how these concerns may affect the business model or financial planning. Such information indicates the resilience of the business strategy and provides insights into the future performance of the organisation.
3. Risk and Impact Management: Organisations are recommended to disclose processes used to identify, assess, prioritise and monitor nature-related concerns, and whether these processes are integrated into existing risk management frameworks. 
4. Metrics and Targets: Disclosures should also include performance of the company, including progress towards any targets set. Metrics highlight the overall exposure of an organisation to nature-related risks and reveal progress in managing or adapting to those issues. Such disclosures also help investors and other stakeholders compare organisations within a sector or industry.

Along with a comprehensive guidance on the recommended disclosures, the TNFD has also designed the LEAP approach to provide direction on identifying and assessing nature-related issues. This integrated approach involves four stages:

• Locate interface with nature;
• Evaluate dependencies and impacts on nature;
• Assess nature-related risks and opportunities, and,
• Prepare to respond to and report on material issues, aligned with TNFD’s recommended disclosures. 

This structure is compatible with other popular reporting frameworks such as the IFRS Sustainability Disclosure Standards. A new tool has also been designed in a collaborative effort with the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) to help align GRI reporting with TNFD. 

The TNFD framework goes beyond disclosures – it serves as a strategic tool for corporations and financial institutions to direct their investments wisely. With the TNFD guidelines, information on risks and opportunities is streamlined. This helps align investments with environmental goals, ensuring that financial decisions support a greener future.

Integrating TNFD Reporting and Nature-Based Solutions

To reverse environmental damage and mitigate climate impact, nature-based solutions (NbS) have emerged as a promising and innovative approach for organisations. These solutions harness the power of natural processes and ecosystems to tackle numerous environmental and social challenges. 

Unlike traditional interventions, NbS work with nature, rather than against it. Solutions range from restoring wetlands to absorbing floodwaters and developing urban green spaces. However, in spite of the growing impetus received from international organisations such as the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), NbS remains severely underfunded. 

As per the 2023 State of Finance for Nature report, current finance flows to NbS of US$200 billion are massively outweighed by finance flows with direct negative impacts on nature of almost $7 trillion. The latest report on NbS published by WWF highlights that inadequate information on returns and impact have been restricting NbS investments. Due to inconsistent reporting, investors do not have clarity on risks, opportunities and impacts of NbS. To resolve these issues, the LEAP approach and the TNFD framework can be used to assess and evaluate NbS projects in terms of project design, governance, and implementation. 

Preparing Businesses for Nature-Related Disclosures

Developing processes to support the TNFD disclosures can take time. Companies may encounter several challenges pertaining to data availability, quality of information and determining materiality of issues. While adoption pathways could be different for each company, as first steps, organisations can start with a few disclosures depending on how much information they currently possess. A gap analysis between TNFD requirements and the existing processes can be helpful to identify which areas or parameters need more work subsequently. Companies can also join the TNFD Forum, which supports collective progress through engagement and collaboration. To facilitate adoption, the TNFD released a suite of Additional Sector Guidance documents this year. 

As of June 2024, more than 400 organisations have adopted the TNFD recommendations. The list includes companies such as IKEA, Standard Chartered, Sumitomo Corporation, Bank of America and AstraZeneca.

With the TNFD, companies now have the tools and responsibilities clearly defined to drive corporate transformation towards a more sustainable, nature-positive future. Going forward, the Taskforce will continue concentrating efforts on promoting and facilitating voluntary market adoption by addressing knowledge gaps and capacity-building of the participants.

The post A Deep Dive Into TNFD and Nature-Related Disclosures appeared first on Earth.Org.

Tropical cyclones, the more general term for hurricanes and tropical storms, are among the costliest weather disasters globally. These rather common weather phenomena are becoming more frequent and intense because of climate change. Earth.Org looks at what tropical cyclones are, how they form, and how global warming is fuelling them.

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Tropical cyclones are powerful storm systems characterized by low pressure, strong winds, and heavy rain. They form over warm ocean waters, mostly in tropical regions.

Once they sustain wind speeds exceeding 63 km/h (39 mph), they are considered a tropical storm and receive a name. Between 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form every year around the world.

Depending on the location, named tropical cyclones are referred to as hurricanes or typhoons. The former term is particularly used in the US as it comprises cyclones that originate in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean.

Hurricanes

The Saffir-Simpson wind scale is the most widely recognized risk assessment method for hurricanes. Developed in 1971 by civil engineer Herbert Saffir and meteorologist Robert Simpson and introduced to the general public in 1973, the scale classifies hurricanes into five categories based on their sustained winds. To be classified as a hurricane, a storm must have a one-minute-average maximum sustained winds of at least 74 mph or 119 km/h (Category 1). Currently, the highest classification is assigned to storms with winds blowing at a speed of at least 157 mph or 252 km/h (Category 5).

The scale also estimates the extent of potential damage to properties, infrastructure, and livelihoods, with Categories 3-5 hurricanes – also known as major hurricanes – expected to cause “devastating” to “catastrophic” damage and loss due to the strength of their winds. However, the scale does not take potentially deadly hazards such as storm surge, rainfall flooding, and tornadoes into account.

Typhoons

Tropical cyclones forming in the northwestern Pacific Ocean are known as typhoons. Depending on the area, the minimum wind speed needed for a cyclone to be classified as a typhoon varies. Vietnam and Japan classify it as such when winds reach a minimum speed of 98.2 km/h (61 mph). In southern China, Hong Kong and Taiwan, the minimum speed must be 118 km/h (73 mph).

Typhoons are then classified further as their speed increases. Hong Kong, for example, refers to them simply as “Typhoons” when wind speed does not exceed 149 km/h (92.6 mph), after which they become “Severe Typhoons” (TS). Only when the speed is 185 km/h or above (>115 mph), they take the name of “Super Typhoons” (SuperT).

Hong Kong also relies on a set of numeric warming signals to indicate the threat or effects of a typhoon, with the lowest level (T1 or “standby signal”) issued when a tropical cyclone approaches within 800 kilometres (497 miles) of the territory and poses a threat of deteriorating conditions. According to the strong winds range, the warning can increase to a T3 (Strong Wind), T8 (Gale or Storm), T9 (Increasing Gale or Storm) and T10 (Hurricane).

China, Japan and the Philippines rely on a similar, six-category classification with slight variations in wind speeds. Meanwhile India classifies any tropical cyclones that develop within the North Indian Ocean in seven categories according to their sustained wind speeds, with the lowest being a Depression (3-minute sustained wind speeds of between 31-50 km/h or 20-31 mph) and the highest being an Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm (hurricane-force winds of 167-220 km/h or 104-137 mph).

How Do Tropical Cyclones Form?

To form, tropical cyclones require a minimum sea surface temperatures of 26C (79F). This temperature provides the necessary heat and moisture to fuel the storm, as opposed to cooler waters, which can weaken or dissipate it.

Hurricanes, or typhoons, form when warm ocean waters heat the air above them, causing the warm, moist air to rise. As this air ascends, it cools and condenses, forming clouds and creating a low-pressure zone beneath. This low pressure allows more air to rush in from surrounding areas. As the system continues to develop, it can lead to the formation of thunderstorms. If there are no strong winds to disrupt the process, the storm can intensify and evolve into a hurricane, or typhoon, depending on its location.

Warm ocean waters, atmospheric instability, and favorable wind conditions all contribute to fuelling the cyclone and make it more powerful.

Viewed from space, tropical cyclones have spiral cloud bands and a visible “eye,” the cyclone’s center. In some cases, the structure of the eye is visible as well. The eye is a calm, generally clear area of sinking air and light winds of maximum 24 km/h (15 mph) and is typically 32-64 km (20-40 miles) across.

The diameter of a tropical cyclone is usually around 200 to 500 kilometers (124-311 miles), but can reach up to 1,000 kilometers (621 miles).

Economic Impact

Tropical cyclones are the costliest weather events globally, particularly in prone regions such as the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, and southern US. The immense damage they can cause stems from high winds, heavy rainfall, flooding, and storm surges, which can devastate infrastructure, homes, and agriculture. The economic impact can be significant, leading to billions of dollars in damages, loss of life, and long-term recovery costs.

The world’s top-ten costliest tropical cyclones all occurred in the Atlantic Ocean. Topping the ranking is Hurricane Katrina, which in 2005 hit the US city of New Orleans and surrounding areas, killing 1,392. Damages were estimated at US$186.3 billion. Katrina is closely followed by Hurricane Harvey (2017), which led to economic losses of $157 billion, and Hurricane Maria (2017), which caused damage worth $112 billion.

Between 2017 and 2023, 137 separate billion-dollar disasters have cost the US more than $1 trillion, largely driven by landfalling Category 4 or 5 hurricanes in five of the last seven years, including Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, Maria, Michael, Laura, Ida, and Ian.

2022 was the nation’s third-costliest year ever for climate disasters, with a total of 18 major climate disasters collectively racking up $165 billion in damages. Category 5 Hurricane Ian alone cost the US about $112.9 billion.

In the Pacific, the most expensive tropical cyclone to date is the 2023 Typhoon Doksuri, which caused over $28 billion in damages, primarily in China. It is followed by Japan’s Typhoon Hagibis in 2019, which resulted in damages for $18 billion, and Typhoon Jebi in 2018, Japan’s costliest typhoon in terms of insured losses.

Hong Kong’s costliest typhoon to date is Super Typhoon Mangkhut, which hit the territory in 2018 and resulted in HK$4.6 billion (US$593 million) in direct economic losses.

Tropical Cyclones and Climate Change: What’s the Link?

Though tropical cyclones are a rather common weather phenomenon, there has been a significant increase in their intensity in recent decades, which scientific observations link to anthropogenic climate change. These abnormal trends are attributed largely to rising ocean temperatures.

The world’s seas have been exceptionally warm for more than a year. The average sea surface temperature in July reached 20.88C, the second-highest value on record and only 0.01C shy of the value recorded in July 2023. This put an end to a 15-month period of record-breaking sea surface temperatures. The latest temperature trends makes it “increasingly likely” that 2024 will be the warmest year yet, beating last year, according to the EU weather agency Copernicus.

While the number of typhoons is not necessarily increasing, those that do form are becoming more destructive – generating heavier rain and a higher storm surge. The likelihood of storms reaching major hurricane status (category three or higher) has also increased significantly over the past decades.

“Fossil fuel-driven warming is ushering in a new era of bigger, deadlier typhoons,” said Ben Clarke, Researcher at the London Imperial College’s Grantham Institute for Climate Change and the Environment. Clarke was part of a team of researchers at World Weather Attribution (WWA) that last month published a study on Typhoon Gaemi, which battered the Philippines, Taiwan and eastern China in July. They found that the typhoon, which left more than 100 people dead, was intensified by fossil fuel-driven global warming.

Gaemi saw sustained winds peak at 233 km/h (145 mph), the equivalent of a Category 4 hurricane. According to the attribution analysis, the winds were about 9 mph (14 km/h) or 7% more intense due to human-made climate change.

The typhoon brought huge amounts of rainfall, too. The Philippines, which was not in Gaemi’s path, saw its seasonal rains exacerbated by the typhoon’s influence, triggering devastating floods that killed 34 people. It made a second landfall in eastern China, leading to heavy flooding, mudflows, and landslides. While it could not determine how climate change influenced rainfall in the Philippines, WWA concluded that the rainfall that hit Taiwan and China’s Hunan province was made about 14% and 9% heavier, respectively.

Another attribution analysis revealed that climate change affected rain patterns and their intensity during the 2020 North Atlantic hurricane season. Researchers found that human-made climate change increased the extreme 3-hourly storm rainfall rates by 10% and extreme 3-day accumulated rainfall amounts by 5%.

Unprecedented Times

In May, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) predicted that this year’s Atlantic hurricane season will likely be “above-normal,” owing to a combination of near-record heat in the Atlantic Ocean and the development of La Niña conditions in the Pacific.

La Niña, a phenomenon that typically occurs every 3 to 5 years, is expected to develop between September and November this year. It is associated with the periodic cooling of ocean surface temperatures in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific, weaker Atlantic trade winds and less atmospheric stability, conditions that are conductive to Atlantic hurricane activity.

NOAA predicts a range of 17 to 25 named storms (wind speed of 39 mph or 65 km/h) this year, eight to 13 of which are forecast to become hurricanes (wind speed of 74 mph or 119 km/h). Of these, 4 to 7 are forecast to be major hurricanes. If true, the predictions would make this year the ninth consecutive to see an above-normal hurricane season, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

To some extent, the US has already had an unusual season this year. Hurricane Beryl, which roared across the Windward Islands in the Caribbean in May, marked an exceptionally early start to the Atlantic hurricane season, becoming the earliest Category-5 storm on record. This confirms a trend already observed by scientists, which found that the hurricane season is starting earlier and lasting longer, with conditions in June resembling what is typically expected in August or September.

“The precocity of Hurricane Beryl is mainly linked to the strong warm anomaly underway in the Atlantic Ocean, where temperatures above 29°C have been recorded,” explained Enrico Scoccimarro, a scientist at the Euro-Mediterranean Centre on Climate Change (CMCC). “We see a trend towards an extension of the warm period in the Atlantic Ocean and therefore the intensification of storms becomes more likely in these months.”

But besides longer seasons, tropical cyclones are becoming more unpredictable and destructive because of climate change. This is partly linked to the fact that these storms are intensifying more rapidly as warmer ocean waters provide more fuel, with winds increasing by 56 km/h (about 35 miles per hour) in a 24-hour period.

Rapidly intensifying storms leave less time for authorities to issue warning systems, putting coastal communities in great danger. In 2022, for example, Hurricane Ian devastated portions of Florida after it rapidly intensified, packing two days’ worth of rapid intensification into less than 36 hours.

Adapting to the New Normal

As climate change rewrite the rules of tropical cyclones, some experts have pointed out that existing warning systems might be revisited to reflect these changes.

A 2023 paper argued that the 1971 Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale is no longer accurate in measuring the climate change-driven exponential increase in winds.

According to the authors, the fact that the scale is open-ended – meaning that anything beyond 157 mph or 252 km/h is classified as Category 5 and assigned the same level of wind hazard – reflects a flaw in the system, no matter if it is blowing 160 mph (257 km/h), like 2022 Hurricane Ian in the US, or 215 mph (346 km/h), like Mexico’s 2015 Hurricane Patricia. For this reason, they suggested adding a hypothetical new category – Category 6 – to the scale. This, they say, would reflect the wind speed that has already been reached in a number of storms that happened in the last decade, including Typhoon Haiyan (2013), Typhoon Meranti (2016), Typhoon Goni (2020), and Typhoon Surigae (2021) in the Western Pacific and Hurricane Patricia (2015) in the Eastern Pacific.

A 2020 analysis of satellite records from 1979 to 2017 found that the likelihood of a storm reaching Category 3 or above, with sustained winds of 185 km/h, increased by 8% per decade. In 2023, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) confirmed these observations, arguing that the proportion of Category 3-5 tropical cyclones as well as the frequency of rapid intensification events have likely increased globally over the past four decades. And with our atmosphere and oceans set to continue warming in the coming years as the climate crisis intensifies, there is little doubt that wind speeds will also progressively strengthen.

Featured image: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center via Wikimedia Commons.

This article was originally published on September 4, 2024.

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